How do pH electrodes work?

The most common type of pH electrodes are the "glass" electrodes.

They consist of a special glass membrane that is sensitive to variations in pH, as pH variation also changes the electrical potential across the glass. In order to be able to measure this potential, a second electrode, the "reference" electrode, is required.

Both electrodes can be present in a "combined" pH electrode, or two physically-separate electrodes can be used. The glass electrode consists of a glass shaft on which a bulb of a specialglass is mounted.

The inner is usually filled with 3 Mol/Litre aqueous KCl and sealed. Electrical contact is provided by a silver wire immersed in the KCl. For "combined" electrodes, the glass electrode is surrounded by a concentricreference electrode.

The reference electrode consists of a silver wire in contact with the almost-insoluble AgCl. The electrical contact with the meteris through the silver wire. Contact with the solution being measured is viaa KCl filling solution.

To minimise mixing of the solution to be measured andthe filling solution, a porous seal, the diaphragm, is used. This is usuallya small glass sinter, however other methods which allow a slow mixing contactcan also be used, especially for samples with low ionic strength. Besides the"normal" KCl solutions, often solutions with an increased viscosity, and hence lower mixing rate are used.

A gel filling can also be used, which eliminates the necessity for slow mixing devices. In contact with different pH solutions a typical glass electrode gives, when compared to the reference electrode, a voltage of about 0 mV at pH 7, increasing by 59 mV per pH unit above 7, or decreasing by 59 mV per pH unit below 7. Both the slope, and the intercept of the curve between pH and generated potential, are temperature dependent.

The potential of the electrode is approximated by the Nernst equation : E = E0 - RT log [H+] = E0 + RT pHWhere E is the generated potential, E0 is a constant, R is universalgas constant and T is the temperature in degrees Kelvin. All pH-sensitive glasses are also susceptible to other ions, such as Na or K.

This requires a correction in the above equation, so the relationship between pH and generated voltage becomes nonlinear at high pH values. The slope tendsto diminish both as the electrode ages, and at high pH. As the electrode hasa very high impedance, typically 250 Megohms to 1 Gigohm, it is necessary touse a very high impedance measuring instrument.

The reference electrode has a fairly constant potential, but it is temperature dependent, and also varies with activity of the silver ions in the reference electrode. This occurs if a contaminant enters the referenceelectrode. Calibration From the preceding, it is obvious that frequent calibration and adjustment of pH meters are necessary.

To check the pH meter, at least two standard buffer solutions are used to cover the range of interest. The pH meter should be on for at least 30 minutes prior to calibration to ensure that all componentsare at thermal equilibrium, and calibration solutions should be immersed forat least a minute to ensure equilibrium.

First use the buffer at pH 7, and adjust the zero (or the intercept). Then, after thorough rinsing with water, use the other buffer to adjust the slope. This cycle in repeated at least once, or until no further adjustments are necessary. Many modern pH meters have an automatic calibration feature,which requires each buffer only once.

Errors People assume pH measurements are accurate, however many potential errors exist. There can be errors caused by the pH-sensitive glass, reference electrode, electrical components, as well as externally generated errors. Glass Electrode Errors The pH-sensitive glass can be damaged. Major cracks are obvious, but minordamage can be difficult to detect. If the internal liquid of the pH-measuringelectrode and the external environment are connected, a pH value close to 7 will be obtained.

It will not change when the electrode is immersed in a known solution of different pH. The electrical resistance of the glass membrane will also be low, often below 1 megohm, and it must be replaced. Similar results occur if the glass wall between the inner and outer part of a combined electrode breaks.

This may occur if the outer part is plastic.The inner part can crack without any external signs. The electrical resistivity over the glass electrode is intact, but actual measuring betweenboth electrodes reveals a low resistivity. The electrode must be replaced. The glass can wear out.

This gives slow response times, as well as a lower slope for the mV versus pH curve. To rejuvenate, immerse the electrode in a 3 Molar KCl solution at 55 degrees Celsius for 5 hours. If this does not solve the problem, try removing a thin layer of the glass by immersion for two minutes in a mixture of HCl and KF (be careful, do not breathe the fumes,and wear gloves). The electrode is then immersed for two more minutes in HCl,and rinsed thoroughly.

As an outer layer of glass has been removed, the new surface will be like a new electrode, however the thinner glass will resultin a shorter electrode life.

Frequent recalibration will be required for several days. The glass can be dirty. A deposit on the glass will slow the response time, make the response sensitive to agitation and ionic strength, and also give the pH of the film, not the sample solution. If the deposit is known, use aappropriate solvent to remove it, and rehydrate the electrode in 3M KCl.

If the deposit is not known, first immerse the electrode for a few minutes in a strongly alkaline solution, rinse thoroughly, and immerse it in a strong acid (HCl) solution for several minutes. If this does not help, try using pepsin in HCl. If still unsuccessful, use the above HCl/KF method.

Reference Electrode Errors The diaphragm of the reference can become blocked. This is seen as unstable or wrong pH measurements. If the electrical resistivity of the diaphragm ismeasured, high values are reported (Most multimeters will give an over-range error). The most common reason is that AgS formed a precipitate in the diaphragm. The diaphragm will be black in this case. The electrode should be immersed in a solution of acidic thio-urea until the diaphragm is white, andthen replace the internal filling liquid of the reference electrode There is no contact across the diaphragm, due to air bubbles. This appears as if the diaphragm were blocked, except that the diaphragm is white. Ensure that the filling solution level in the reference electrode is always wellabove the sample, so that liquid is always slowly flowing from the reference electrode towards the sample. The electrode filling solution is contaminated. This appears as unstable or wrong pH measurements. Often the 0mV pH differs considerably from pH 7.

The diaphragm has its normal colour and the electrical resistivity is normal. However, the solution often becomes contaminated due to low filling solution levels, and air bubbles may also appear in the diaphragm, which obviously affects electrical resistivity. Replacing the reference filling solution several times should solve the problem, but the electrode may have been permanently damaged. The problem can be avoided by choosing gel-filled reference electrodes, double-junction electrodes, or ensuring there is an outflow of reference filling solution towards the sample. The electrode was filled with the wrong reference solution. This appears asas displaced pH measurements. Flush and replace the reference liquid.

Electrical errors Condensation or sample contamination of the electrode connecting cable. This appears as an almost-constant measurement of about pH 7, even when the pH electrode is disconnected from the cable, or as a pH which changes less than it should, when tested with two standard solutions. If the cable is disconnected from the meter, the pH will start to drift. There is a short circuit in the cable. The symptoms are similar to the above case, except that bending the cable may create sharp, spurious readings.

In most pH cables, between the two copper conductors there are two layers which appear to be insulators. The inner layer is an insulator, whereas the outer layer is a conductor to avoid trace electrical effects. If this outer layer does contact the inner conductor, there will be a short circuit. Replace suspect cables.

The input stage of the meter is contaminated with conducting liquid. The symptoms are the same as above, except that removing the cable has noeffect. Closely examine the input stage of the meter for liquid or deposits. If present, rinse with distilled water, then ethanol, and dry thoroughly. The input stage of the meter is faulty. This gives random measurements.

Shorting both input wires does not make any difference. Repair the meter. The input stage appears faulty. Shorting both input wires gives a stablepH measurement of about 7. The meter may be faulty, but probably the problem is elsewhere in the electrical circuit. Externally-generated Errors If a significant flow of liquid passes the electrode, then there canbe a minor electrical effect.

This generates a potential on the glass membrane, which is superimposed on the actual pH measurement. This effect becomes negligible for highly-conducting liquids. It is seldom observed. If the trace electric effect does influence pH measurements, the addition of a little salt to increase the conductivity, or changing the flux of liquid around the electrode, should solve the problem. Ground loops and spurious electrical currents may generate unexpected electrical signals. Such signals can strongly influence pH measurements.

A pH reading in the range of -15 to +20 is possible, even if the pH is 7. Ground loops can be eliminated by grounding the system according to themanufacturer's instructions, and ensuring insulation is in good condition. Often these problems can be extremely difficult to detect and remedy. Low ionic strength samples can be affected by electrolyte from the electrode, and special electrodes are available.